Monday, January 27, 2020
Approaches to Correction of Class III Skeletal Malocclusion
Approaches to Correction of Class III Skeletal Malocclusion Combined Orthodontic and Surgical Approach in the Correction of Class III Skeletal Malocclusion Dr. Abdulaziz AlShahrani Astrac While growth modification and camouflage orthodontic treatment offers a limited solution in treating some skeletal Class III malocclusion depending on the age of the patient , Underlying skeletal severity, alignment of the teeth and the vertical facial proportions, a combination of surgical and Orthodontic therapy is the treatment of choice in all severe skeletal Class III malocclusion. In this case report I present a combination of surgical-orthodontic therapy for an adult female patient with skeletal class III malocclusion which resulted in good skeletal, dental and soft tissue relationship, with marked improvement in function and facial esthetics. Keywords:Class III malocclusion, Orthognathic Surgery, surgical orthodontics Introduction Class III malocclusion is considered to be one of the most difficult and complex orthodontic problems to treat. The prevalence of class III malocclusion has been reported to be as low as 3-5% in the Caucasian population, but is higher in the Chinese and Japanese population (4-13%) (Often associated with maxillary retrusion)[i],[ii],[iii]. The etiology of class III is complex and multifactorial. However, there is usually a strong genetic contribution. Genetic factor is one of the etiological factors where one third of children with severe Class III had a parent with the same problem and one-sixth had an affected sibling[iv]. Racial tendency may play a role as the blacks have shown higher incidence than white’s[v].Environmental factors appear to play an adaptiverole in the etiology of Class III malocclusion[vi].Class III malocclusion can be associated with other factors such as cleft palate[vii]. Individuals with class III malocclusion show combinations of skeletal and dentoalveolar components. Class III malocclusion may occur as a result of protrusive mandible, retrusive maxilla, combination of both[viii]. While the most commonly found Class III malocclusion (30%) showed a combination of mandibular protrusion and maxillary retrusion, Maxillary retrusion alone was found in 19.5% of the sample and Mandibular protrusion alone was found in 19.1% of the sample[ix].These complex nature of class III requirea careful planning, amultidisciplinary approach and patient cooperation[x]. CaseReport A 17-year-old caucasian girl presented for orthodontic treatment because of referral from her dentist with primary complaint of un-esthetic facial and dental appearance. She has a hyper-divergent Class III skeletal and dental relationship. This is characterized by retrognathic maxilla, retroclined lower anterior teeth, with maximum active opening of 47mm with 5mm negative overjet and lateral excursions of 7 mm to both right and left sides. The patient has an ovoid, relatively asymmetrical face with chin slightly deviated to the left. The lip line at rest displayed approximately 2 mm of upper incisor. At full animation there was 7mm of upper incisal display and 2 mm of lower incisal edge. She has a slightly concave profile, and competent lips[Figure1]. Pretreatment extra oral photos Intraorally, the oral mucosa was healthy. There were no periodontal pockets present. The gingival tissues were inflamed especially around the prosthetic crowns. There was no bleeding tendency except sometimes with brushing. Free gingival margins were near to the CEJ and attached gingiva was of normal width throughout the mouth. The frenal attachments in both arches were normal. The tongue was normal in size, function and appearance. Teeth # 26, 36 and 46 have been crowned. There was a lingual arch placed one year ago to maintain lower incisors position. Occlusion analysis, she was in the permanent dentition and the 3rd molars were un-erupted. She has good oral hygiene. Frontal view: Shows a dental midline discrepancy. The lower dental midline is coincident with the facial midline while the upper midline is not coincident with the facial midline it’s off to the left by 2.5mm, the occlusal planewas slightly canted to the left. A negative overjet of 5 mm reported.Right and left Lateral Views Shows the canines and molars in Class III relationships. The upper occlusal view shows a U-shaped arch with well aligned anterior segment. The lower occlusal view reveals a U-shaped arch with crowding of 3.9mmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹[Figure 2]. TREATMENT OBJECTIVES Our objective is to address compensated lower incisors by proclining them to the ideal position and inclination followed by increasing the horizontal projection of the maxilla to correct upper jaw retrognathism, concave profile, class III dental relationshipand negative overiet. Increased lower facial height and hyper-divergence will be corrected byautorotation of the mandible after the advancement of the maxilla and vertical reduction genioplasty.Mandibular asymmetry will be corrected by BSSO while maintaining lower incisor position. TREATMENT PROGRESS We started Pre-surgical orthodontics using self-ligation bracket system (Roth prescription, 022†slot). Leveling and alignment of maxillary and mandibular arches began with round 0.016 niti arch wires progressing to 0.0170.025 niti arch wires. Patient was referred to extract all 3rd molars at this stage. Coordinated 0.0190.025 Stainless steel then used for arch coordination before sending the patient for surgical procedure[Figures 67]. All the movement and prediction were planned on pre-surgical lateral cephalometric x-ray using Moorres mesh as a guide. A sheet of tracing paper over the original tracing and the outline of the mandible was drawn and trimmed making a template, another template for the maxilla was produced and placed in the post-surgical position. The mandibular autorotation then simulated accordingly. The soft tissue contours then drawn using the guidelines in literatures[xi],[xii],[xiii][Figure8]. Centric relationship of Upper and lower jaws was recorded and Face bow transfer and articulation of models on a semi-adjustable articulator was done. Model surgery then performed using Erickson model blockandacrylic inter occlusal wafer splint was produced. Le fort I osteotomywas performed to advance the maxilla for 7.1 mm and Bilateral sagittal split osteotomy was carried out to correct mandibular asymmetry while maintaining the A-P position of the mandible. Vertical reduction and advancement (4mm each) genioplastythen performed to address the increased lower facial height and achieve esthetically acceptable facial profile. Rigid type of fixations were used in both arches. The patient was followed closely and the post-surgical Orthodontic was resumed 3 weeks after surgery. 0.0190.025 stainless steel changed to 0.021 Ãâ€" 0.025stainless steel to express the torque. Finishing was performed with settling elastics[figures9-12]. Six months later, fixed appliances were removed and lower fixed retainer 3-3 was cemented along with upper and lower Hawley’s retainers [figures 13 14]. Cephalometric finding shows a good skeletal, dental and soft tissue relationship and improvement in the function and facial esthetics[Table 2, Figures15-17]. pre- and post-treatment cephalometrictracings Discussion This case report presents a combination of surgical and orthodontic therapy for an adult female patient with skeletal and dental class III malocclusion. The magnitude of the problem was so severe and lies outside the envelope of possible correction by orthodontics alone[xiv]. In growing patients, early treatment with maxillary expansion and protraction can result in straightening of profile after 6 months[xv]. It can also promote more favorable psychosocial development and greater compliance[xvi]. Delaying treatment can lead to development of posterior cross bite and the subsequent development of facial asymmetry[xvii].During adulthood, correction of the Class III malocclusion usually requires complex surgical procedures to achieve a good skeletal, dental and soft tissue relationship and improve the function and facial esthetics[xviii]. In this case, our objective were achieved. Compensated lower incisors were address by proclining them to the ideal position and inclination in pre-surgical orthodontic treatmentwhile in post-surgical orthodontic treatment teeth were brought into settledocclusion. Normal skeletal relationship was achieved byLe fort I osteotomyto advance the maxilla, Bilateral sagittal split osteotomy to correct mandibular asymmetry while maintaining the A-P position of the mandible and vertical reduction and advancementgenioplasty [i] [ii] [iii] [iv] [v] [vi] [vii] [viii] [ix] [x] [xi]. [xii]. [xiii] [xiv] [xv] [xvi] [xvii] [xviii]
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Dividend Policy Essay
Introduction Refer to Figure 1. Would you say that Montgomery’s policy up to now has been to pay a constant dividend, with occasional increases as the company grows? Montgomery has maintained the dividend policy of paying a regular dividend to their stakeholders. This steady dividend policy increases every time the firm produces. Since 200, the amount committed to paying dividends has grown each year, but particular emphasis has been placed on the figures that show dividends paid on every share. In 2000, they paid$1. 36, 2001 they paid $1.48, 2002 they paid $ 1.70, 2003 and 2004 the firm paid $1.76 each year, and in 2005 it paid dividend per share of $ 1.96 showing a steady increase over the six years. The top-level management has been confident about the constant or slight annual increase of the DPS because of the yearly rise in the overall number of shares every year since 2000 (Baker, 2009). Refer to Figure 2. What type of dividend policies would you say are being practiced by Montgomery’s competitors in the retailing industry? Do you think that any firms are following a residual policy? J.C. Penney 1999           2000  2001  2002  2003  2004  2005 EPS                $2.75           $2.94  $3.13  $2.91  $2.66  $3.53  $4.70 DPS                $0.92           $1.00  $1.08  $1.18  $1.18  $1.24  $1.48 Payout Ratio     33.5%        34.0%  34.5% 40.6% 44.4% 35.1% 31.5%  Dollar General 1999          2000  2001  2002  2003  2004  2005 EPS        $0.38        $0.61  $0.81  $1.10  $0.95  $0.23  $0.30 DPS         $0.09       $0.11  $0.13  $0.17  $0.20  $0.20  $0.20 Payout Ratio 23.7%  18%  16.1% 15.5% 21.1% 87.0% 66.7% Wal-Mart Stores 1999     2000  2001  2002  2003  2004  2005 EPS           $0.16     $0.23  $0.35  $0.48  $0.58  $0.80  $1.10 DPS            $0.02    $0.02  $0.04  $0.05  $0.07  $0.09  $0.12 Payout Ratio  12.5% 8.7%  11.4% 10.4% 12.1% 11.3% 10.9% The main competitors that Montgomery has been competing with are Wal- mart, J.C Penney, and Dollar General. The two firms are using the same policy used by Montgomery as they strive to increase their dividend per share each year. In 2004, despite Earnings per share, reducing by over 75% the dividend per share was held at $0.20. The dollar increased their profits by more than 17% despite the EPS decreasing by 14%. It is clear that a growth and stable dividend are critical factors considered by any growing retail company. We see that Wal-Mart, which is the biggest retail industry, also ignores emphasizing on capital growth as they go for stability in dividend and growth. The same case applies to J.C Penney, who maintains a stable dividend per share despite fluctuations in EPS. Montgomery has the highest average payout ratio compared to even Wal-Mart because of the long period they have been in the industry and with the same dividend policy, their DPS increase every year (Baker, 2009).  Question Two Calculate the expected return to the common stockholders under the firm’s present policy, given an expected dividend next year of $2.10 and a growth rate of 7.1 percent. Montgomery’s stock currently sells for $35.(Use the dividend growth model): Expected return (Ke) = D1 / P0 + g D1 = $2.10, g = 7.1%, P0 = $35, Ke, Expected return to stockholder = $2.10/$35 + 7.1% = 6+ 7.1 = 13.1% Assume that, if Don Jackson’s proposal were adopted, next year’s dividend would be zero, but earnings growth would rise to 14 percent. What will be the expected return to the stockholders (assuming the other factors are held constant)? Adopting Don’s suggestion will see the Stockholders earn no dividend at all, but the growth will increase by 14% with an expected return remaining the same as the growth rate. Expected Return to Stock holders= 0/$35+ 14% = 14%. Don’s suggestion will see the stakeholders enjoy an additional 0.9% on their expected return, thus the need to see the advantages of Don’s policy. Therefore, the firm cannot completely ignore the idea of changing to a residual dividend policy. On the other hand, the same stockholders will only make a 14% gain by selling their shares yet the current dividend policy earns them a 13.1%. Since there are no advantages enjoyed by capital gain as a result of existing legislation, then it could be wise for the Company to maintain the dividend policy they are using. This is because the shareholders could only benefit from residual dividend policy if the firm grew to 14% a fact that is only speculation. If the growth fall below13. 1% then the current system is still the best (Baker &Filbeck, 2012). Question three Don’s suggestion supports the fact that dividend and capital budget should be paid from the current year’s net income, a case that is untrue. This happens because the firm is being limited by the cash they are holding. The company’s balance in 2005 was $3,235,000 being the maximum amount that can be paid to the capital budget together with a dividend without having to outsource for funds or sell its existing assets. Paying dividends from retained earnings will force firms to sell their property since they are not hard cash (Baker &Filbeck, 2012). Question four Don says the cost of the outside financing is more expensive than the cost of internal financing, due to the flotation costs charged by investment bankers. Given the data you have, what would you say is the firm’s cost of internal equity financing?  The cost of borrowing from outside sources will only be higher because of costs incurred during flotation. Assume Montgomery can sell bonds priced to yield 13 percent. What is the firm’s after-tax cost of debt? (The tax rate is 25 percent. Bonds yield=13%. Therefore, after tax cost = 13%, multiply by (1-0.25) = 9.75%. Given the cost of debt and the cost of internal equity financing, why doesn’t Montgomery just borrow the total amount needed to fund the capital budget and the dividend as well. Borrowing money for capital budget and dividend will affect the debt-equity, causing it to be out of proportion as it will increase the cost of financing of debts as well as the costs of all other financial means  (Baker &Filbeck, 2012). Question five Do you go along with Clarence Autry’s comment that it is what the stockholders want that counts, not their total rate of return? Why or why not? Mr. Autry is against the residual dividend policy. This  means that the shareholders will not have a say or preference on the type of repayment they receive for investing in Montgomery as long as they earn the highest returns. If they are given the opportunity to choose, they will not go for that policy. There are no rules for determining whether shareholders can have a preference or how much they will benefit from it, thus making the issue very controversial. But the retailing industry as shown in the figures above for Wal-mart, J C Penney and dollar, they give shareholders a preference which is taking the current dividend paid rather than investing the cash in more attractive investments (Baker &Filbeck, 2012). Question six Barbara Reynolds suggests that, if cash is needed for the capital budget, a stock dividend could be substituted for a cash dividend. Do you agree? How do you think the stockholders would react? Regardless of their reaction, is the stock dividend an equivalent substitute for a cash dividend? As much as the firm is in a position to pay share dividend and not cash dividend, not all stockholders will be comfortable for some will feel that nothing was actually paid to them. This is so because the share dividend is just but a mere paper which the shareholders sign to create more shares. This could only become beneficial if it increased the shareholders total cash dividend which will go into the role of a stock dividend to conserve funds (Baker, 2009). Question seven After all is said and done, do you think the firm’s dividend policy matters? If so, what do you think Montgomery’s policy should be. Whether going for residual dividend policy or payment of a cash dividend, every financial analyst has his or her views. Many would argue that borrowing to invest rather than using the available money would increase costs due to flotation that are associated with borrowing from outside sources hence need to go for a residual dividend policy. On the other hand, Montgomery being an old firm that is used to the current dividend policy will be better off sticking to it. Consequently, leave residual dividend policy for new emerging retail companies (Baker, 2009). References Baker, K. (2009). ‘Dividends and Dividend policy.’eighth edition, Harvard Business School Press: New York. Baker, K. & Filbeck, G. (2012). ‘Alternative investments: Instruments, Performance, Benchmark and Strategies.’2nd edition, Harvard Business School Press: New York.       Â
Friday, January 10, 2020
How Did the Open Field System Work? Essay
When the community planted wheat year after year in a field, the nitrogen in the soil was depleted. Therefore, three-year rotations was introduced in order to retain the fertility of the soil. 3. Where and why did the agricultural revolution start? Include political, social and economic reasons. With the coming of the French Revolution, European peasants were able to improve their position by means of radical mass action. The agricultural revolution gradually spread throughout Europe beginning in the Low Countries, mainly the Dutch. The problem of soil exhaustion was solved using sophisticated patterns of crop rotation without using fallowing to increase land cultivation by 50 %. Economy was prospering because of trade and businesses. New ideas out of medieval age. 4. What was enclosure and was it a swindle of the poor by the rich? Enclosure is the term used to describe the need to enclose and consolidate scattered holdings into compact fenced-in fields in order to farm more effectively. It was not exactly a swindle of the poor by the rich because large investments were required and it imposed risks for the nobles as well. 5. What accounted for the increasing population of the 18th century? Increasing population in the 18th century was stimulated by commerce and overseas trade. 6. How was the grip of the deadly Bubonic Plague broken? Women were able to have more children because they married at a younger age due to new opportunities of employment. New improvements in water supply and sewage systems resulted in better public health and helped reduce diseases. Human beings became more successful in their efforts to safeguard supply of food in case of famine. 7. What was the putting out system? What were the advantages and disadvantages of this system for the merchant and for the worker? The putting-out system was used to describe the key features of the 18th century rural industry – for the new form of industrial production. Merchants advantages- large profits. Worker’s advantages- buy their own materials and work as independent producers before selling it to merchant.
Thursday, January 2, 2020
Alternative Energy Sources For A Call Center Based On...
Call Centre Report [Type the document subtitle] C M 9/29/2016 Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2 2. Description of current situation 2 3. Solar Systems 3 3.1 Active solar water heating systems 4 4. Biomass systems 5 Works Cited 6 Figure 1 - Roof mounted flat plate solar collectors and hot water tank. 3 1. Introduction With companies becoming more aware of how important it is to reduce their current environmental impact, alternative energy sources like solar and wind powered energy are becoming more prominent as eco-friendly alternatives to current unsustainable methods of power such as fossil fuels (BBC, n.d.) The purpose of this report is to identify the best suited alternative energy sources for a call center based on information the company has provided such as the area and space available, average wind speed, solar energy reach and average ground temperatures. 2. Description of current situation The call center is in a rural location and consumes 200MWh of energy annually; 150MWh of this is used for space heating. Electrical storage heating is currently being used, with each off-peak unit of electricity costing  £0.06 (April 2008). The company now wishes to reduce their environmental impact and if possible, energy costs. The following report will discuss several microgeneration systems and whether they are a viable option for the company to install in order to reduce their environmental impact, energy usage and costs. Annual energy costs for theShow MoreRelatedThe Sustainability Of Energy Sources1138 Words  | 5 Pagessustainability of energy sources is the provision of energy sources without compromising for present and future use. The major sources of energy are natural resources such as fossil fuel and coal. These natural resources are limited in our universe. Therefore, there is maximum compromise in the use of these resources. 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Wednesday, December 25, 2019
Essay on Fighting Pharmacists, Fulfilling the Prescription
Fighting Pharmacists, Fulfilling the Prescription In recent years there has been an influx of women receiving prescriptions for the postcoital pill (PCP) also known as the morning-after pill, Plan B, and a form of emergency contraception. Some pharmacists, however, are exercising their right not to fulfill patient’s prescription, based primarily on their personal values and morals. Amidst the negative overtones, women continue to take the morning-after pill in an effort to maintain their rights. â€Å"Timely access to emergency contraception is critical therefore any delay the woman might experience before taking the medication is unacceptable and places an undue burden on the woman,†said Patricia Conner, Emergency Contraception†¦show more content†¦The morning-after pill is used after unprotected intercourse or when a contraceptive method fails, such as when a condom bursts. It is also used when a woman who takes the birth control pill has vomited and is worried that she may have â€Å"lost†the pill and its effectiveness against pregnancy. PCP is proven to be 85 percent effective in the prevention of pregnancies, if the two tablets are taken at the same time within the 72 hours of unprotected sex. Yet, it is important that a woman take the tablets as soon as possible after unprotected sex and not delay until the third day. This may cause the chances of a successful procedure to decline. The hormones in the PCP stop an egg from being released; they stop a fertilized egg from implanting itself in the womb. In September of 2004, Suzanne Richards, a resident of Laconia, N.H. was denied her emergency contraception prescription by pharmacist Todd Sklencar, because he was opposed to prescribing something that could end a life. He informed her to transfer her prescription, but did not tell her where to do so. Three days later the pharmacy contacted her and told her that Sklencar had been transferred to a nearby pharmacy, and that she could pick-up her prescription. Unfortunately, it was too late, and Richards was forced toShow MoreRelatedPharmaCare essay3748 Words  | 15 Pagesï » ¿ Introduction The twenty-first century has seen pharmaceutical companies grow in unprecedented size and strength. Due to the unprecedented growth the larger pharmaceutical companies have gained leverage and power in the prescription drug industry, but they lack innovation to market and they seek ways to help the business continue to increase its profits. The pharmaceutical industry was once ethically sound and was a valuable player in the development of human health. However, overtime with theRead MoreCsr Communication in the Pharma Industry35538 Words  | 143 Pagessure there 34 CSR COMMUNICATION IN THE PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY Josà © Javier Levrino is a natural link between the cause and the organization. As an example, it seems logical that a pharmaceutical company includes initiatives relating fighting counterfeit medicines in developing countries. There are a number of factors that the organization can highlight in its CSR communication: a. CSR commitment: An organization can commit to social causes in many different ways (donating capital, employeeRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words  | 658 Pages608 CASE STUDY The global pharmaceutical industry Sarah Holland The case looks at the development of the ethical pharmaceutical industry. The various forces affecting the discovery, development, production, distribution and marketing of prescription drugs and issues of corporate responsibility are discussed. The case also looks at the different types of strategies that are followed by pharmaceutical companies. ââ€" ââ€" ââ€" In late 2006, industry commentator IMS Health released its latest forecastRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words  | 1422 Pagesresearchers to conclude that the use of therapeutic dogs is beneï ¬ cial in the treatment of heart patients. (San Luis Obispo Tribune, November 16, 2005) Late in 2005, those eligible for Medicare had to decide which, if any, of the many complex new prescription medication plans was right for them. To assist with this decision, a program called PlanFinder that compares available options was made available online. But are seniors online? Based on a survey conducted by the Los Angeles Times, it was estimated
Tuesday, December 17, 2019
Mix-Cultured Vagabonds - 1050 Words
Jhumpa Lahiri’s short story, â€Å"Interpreter of Maladies,†follows the adventure of an American-Indian family who are taking the role of tourists in their own native homeland. The Das family is inherently Indian, but the experience of being born and raised in America has diluted their cultural background. The Das family is a symbol of both American and Indian cultures intermixing, and due to this, the family does not completely belong in either culture. The Das family is Indian, but they have been socialized into American culture. These observations of the family’s American-like behaviors are seen through the eyes of the Indian tour-guide, Mr. Kapasi. During a rest stop, Lahiri mentions, â€Å"Where’s Mina?†Mr. Das asked. Mr. Kapasi found it†¦show more content†¦They had secretly planned for their children to spend every waking moment with each other, and consequently, fall in love and marry. Their plans had worked without being revealed . Mr. Kapasi, an Indian born and raised, is able to relate to this as his marriage was also arranged (341). Though, this is not the only similarity Mr. and Mrs. Das shares with Mr. Kapasi. As Mr. Kapasi notices, the Das’ have three children: Tina, Ronny and Bobby. Although Mr. Kapasi never makes known the exact number of children he has, but as Lahiri writes, â€Å"the other children who were born soon enough, and the new, bigger house†(342). It can be assumed that Mr. Kapasi also has many children. These value of big families is seen in both the Das family and Mr. Kapasi. Although the Das family may not be nearly as big as Mr. Kapasi’s family, it should also be noted that Mrs. Das is only twenty-eight years of age, and there is a great possibility that the family will expand from the three children (350). The Das family still bears marriage norms of Indian culture and the value of having a big family. The Das family displays some American behaviors, yet also p ossesses some intrinsically Indian values. In this way, there is a certain dualism of cultures in the family. Mr. Kapasi, who is purely Indian, notices this dynamic when he first spots the family at the hotel. Lahiri writes, â€Å"The family looked Indian but dressed as
Monday, December 9, 2019
Secure Data Aggregation Technique Networks - MyAssignmenthelp.com
Question: Discuss about the Secure Data Aggregation Technique Networks. Answer: Introduction Wireless networking can be beneficial in increasing the productivity of any organization or easy connectivity between the devices. Because it is much easy to setup within the premises and at low cost expenditure it is being listed into the trending technology. This provides many advantages but also results in certain threats and issues that can alter the existing information and could raise security and privacy of the individuals connected to the network. These threats have been described in the following report include the countermeasures that could be helpful in mitigating them at extent level. The purpose of this report is to provide a basic understanding on the wireless networking concept and threats related to the application of this technology including the countermeasures. Accidental association could lead to the unauthorized access to an organization management or an individual network, which occurs due to the overlapping network of neighbors wireless access point. When an individual turns on his or her computer and accidently it latches to the wireless access point from the overlapping network of the neighbor and this accident is untraced by the user that it has occurred (Kavianpour Anderson, 2017). However this is a term of security breach to the neighbor network in that proprietary information of the individual or the organization is being exposed and could create a link to the computers connected to that network. It can be referred to the moment when wireless devices are actively made by the intruder in manner to be connected to that organization ions network through their personal laptop or other computer rather being connected to the company AP (Access Point).these computers or laptops are defined as soft Aps that are created when certain coding has been used to make the intruders network card look alike the legitimate access point (Pathan, 2016). Various malicious activities can be done after gaining the access such as intruder can steal the password, plant Trojans and/or launch attack on wired network. It can be regarded as the security risk as non-traditional networks like Bluetooth devices management are not the safe devices for cracking. Barcode readers, wireless printers, copiers, and handled PDAs are vulnerable to such attacks and should be secured as these can be overlooked by any IT team or individual those have not focused on access points and on computers much broadly (Hoque et al., 2014). Denial of Service It can be represented as DOS that can be occurred when an intruder tries to continuously bombard an AP that has been targeted or networks that have premature successful connection messages, bogus reports, or other commands including failure messages (Yan et al., 2016). These attempts could lead in crashing the network and even the legitimate user is not able to get on the network. Such attacks are completely relied on the abuse of protocols for example EAP (Extensive Authentication Protocol). Such type of attack occurred when an intruder uses the non-filtered network traffic access points, mainly the broadcasting network traffic for example OSPF, HSRP, RIP, and the spanning tree (802.1D). For affecting the routers, intelligent hubs, and the switches, an intruder uses the process of injecting bogus networking re-configuration commands (Rezwani et al., 2015). Such type of attack are capable of bringing the whole system down and there will be requirement of reprogramming for all the intelligent networking devices or may requires rebooting the system. Many of the wireless systems allow few kinds of MAC filtering in manner to allow the authorized computers with the specific MAC IDs for gaining the access and utilizing the network. MAC Spoofing can be occurred when an intruder gets access to listen in on network traffic and gets the ability to identify the MAC address of the laptops or computer with that network privileges (Gupta Jha, 2015). There are a number of coding and program that can be used for network sniffing capabilities and combining these coding with the software can be helpful in allowing the computer to pretend that it has MAC address as per the desire of the intruder and the intruders could easily made to getting into that hurdle. Countermeasures to the Raised Issues Poorly configured or insecure access points can lead towards compromising the confidentiality through providing unauthorized access to the network. There are various counter measures that could be taken for such threats and issues in the application of wireless networks that can be listed as: Securing wireless Access Points include three steps that could help in countering the threats stated above: Firstly, elimination of the rogue access points through using 802.1x on the wired network in manner to authenticate the devices or the computers that have been plugged in the same network. Second step can be sated as securely configuring the Authorized Access Points management that can be accomplished through changing all the settings that are default and well known to general persons or any IT personnel (DiPietro et al., 2014). Third step is through using 802.1x to authenticate all devices that can be helpful in preventing the unauthorized devices and rogue access points from becoming an insecure window for the intruders. Loss or theft and data compromise are the two major threats to the wireless client devices. Loss or thefts is related to the loss or theft of the PDAs and laptops that can be a concerning fact as in general these contains proprietary and confidential information. So there should be proper care and physical security should be maintained in manner to keep these information and devices secured and safe from getting into wrong hands (Wright Cache, 2015). Such carelessness could lead to the unauthorized access and sensitive data can be manipulated or compromised. Securing Wireless Networks There are various countermeasures for preventing the raised threats and issues that can be listed as: Use of encryption: encrypting or scrambling the communication over the network can help in better security for these networks and there should be proper built-in encryption mechanism into the access points, wireless routers, and base stations (Mukherjee et al., 2014). Use of Anti-spyware and anti-virus software, and firewall: Same protection is needed in this network as that of the internet connection and this software and firewall should be original and up-to date with the latest versions through keeping auto-update option on. Turn off identifier broadcasting: It is a mechanism in a router that enables it to send out a signal specifying its presence in the vicinity. There is no need for this broadcast as all the users would already know its presence. This broadcast can be used by the intruders to gain unauthorized access. Changing the router on the router from default: There is a default ID assigned by the manufacturer of the router that should be changed because even after turning identifier off intruders can get the access to the network through these default IDs (Chelli, 2015). Changing pre-administrator and pre-set passwords of the router: Everything that is being provided by the manufacturers has default credentials and those data is enough for a programmer to get into the network and gain unauthorized access. This should be changed from default to personal credentials. Allowing access to only specific computers: External computers should not be allowed to be connected to the network as it could lead to several threats as mentioned above. This could be achieved by incorporating MAC filtering on for the routers. Turning off the wireless network while not using it: The intrusion cannot be made if the router has no power so it is better to keep it off when the individuals are not around. Training and Educating Users Users are one of the basic components of wireless networking and also for its security and can be regarded as the key component for the security of wireless networking. Indeed the training for the users is an important aspect regarding the security of wireless network and educating them about the secure wireless behavior can eliminate many threats and it should be introduced in a repeated manner to the users (Dhingra Verma, 2015). It is an important part of the WLAN security policy that states that there should be regular audit to the wireless network for the rogue hardware. Mapping and scanning for all the WLAN Nodes and access points are the major activities for this section. Wavelan-tool and netstumbler are the common available mapping tools that can be used to enhance the security of wireless networks (Shu Krunz, 2015). Conclusion: Based on the above report it can be concluded that networking technology can be helpful in increasing the productivity of the organization within the budget but it also alters the risk related to the information security profile. It can be stated that completely elimination of these threats or risks is not possible whereas, proper and effective countermeasures can be taken to prevent such unwanted situations through systematic approach for assessing and managing these risks. This report discusses how and what countermeasures could be taken to minimize these threats at the level of extent and how training and auditing are the most important aspect for assessing these risks. References: Chelli, K. (2015, July). Security issues in wireless sensor networks: attacks and countermeasures. 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